BUTCH/FEM RESOURCE LIST
There has been little research in Britain in regard to lesbians. The majority of the following articles are from the U.S.A. and are available through your local library (you will have to complete an order card and it will probably take about a month as they will have to send to the British Library for a copy; this should cost you about .50p). Those marked with an asterisk are available from the Lesbian Archive, 0171.405.6475.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THOSE WHO HOLD POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALS, A.P. MACDONALD, RICHARD G. GAMES, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1974, VOL 1(1), P9-27.
This study (presented as a paradigm study in the area of majority-minority relations) replicates previous findings that negative attitudes toward homosexuals are associated with lack of support for equality between the sexes. It includes a multidimensional measure of support for equality between the sexes; Semantic Differentials for Man, Woman, Male Homosexual, and Lesbian; four value factors derived from Rokeach's 36 Instrumental and Terminal Values; measures of authoritarianism, cognitive rigidy, and ambiguity tolerance; a premarital sexual permissiveness scale; and attitudes toward male and female homosexuality scales. Most interesting among the findings are the correlations to the Potency dimension of the Semantic Differential. Implications for the gay and feminist movements are briefly discussed.
MALES, FEMALES, AND TRANSSEXUALS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SEXUAL CONSERVATISM, THOMAS KANDO, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1974, VOL 1(1) P45-64.
This study compares males, females, and transsexuals in terms of their endorsement of traditional sex ascriptions. To measure the dimension, a Masulinity-Feminity Scale was constructed, consisting of 64 traditional sex-based ascriptions. It was found that men endorse these ascriptions much more than women do, and that transsexuals do so even more than men. This sexual conservatism on the part of men was interpreted to mean that males wish to maintain the sexual status quo. The lesser sexual conservatism expressed by women is in line with the current women's liberation. The extreme sexual conservatism of the transsexual is understandable in view of the facts that her self-concept is that of a female, that, as a newly converted female having undergone an irreversible surgery, her investment into the new status is heavy and demands all the zeal with which new converts often embrace new statuses, and the fact that she strives, ultimately, not so much after femininity as after middle-class respectability. A typology of transsexuals consisting of the house-wife type, the stripper, the aspiring housewife, and the career woman shows that many transsexuals have failed to establish middle-class behavior patterns, but that all subscribe to middle-class standards. Unlike liberated females and other sexual minorities, transsexuals lack all militancy and desire only middle-class acceptance.
A FACTOR-ANALYTIC CONCEPTUALIZATION OF ATTITUDES TOWARD MALE AND FEMALE HOMOSEXUALS, JIM MILLHAM, CHRISTOPHER L. SAN MIGUEL, RICHARD KELLOGG, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1976, VOL 2(1), P3-10.
A wide sprectrum of opinions and beliefs concerning homosexuals was sampled, compiled into a questionnaire format, and administered to a large group of heterosexual subjects. Factor analysis yielded six independent sets of attitudes that describe the variance in heterosexual reactions to homosexuals. The relationship of sex differences and familiarity with homosexuals to variations in response style is discussed.
IATROGENIC HOMOSEXUALITY: GENDER IDENTITY IN SEVEN 46,XX CHROMOSOMAL FEMALES WITH HYPERADRENOCORTICAL HERMAPHRODITISM BORN WITH A PENIS, THREE REARED AS BOYS, FOUR REARED AS GIRLS, JOHN MONEY, JEAN DALERY, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALTY, 1976, VOL 1(4), P357-371.
This paper describes seven chromosomal and gonodal females with the adrenogenital syndrome who were born with a penis as a result of extreme fetal androgenization. Four of them were reared as girls and differentiated a female gender identity with tomboyism. The other three were reared as boys, differentiated a male gender identity, and performed sexually as men with women partners. Even though these men are by no means homosexual in the everday meaning of the term, the sexual relation is homosexual on the criteria of chromosomal and gonadal sex. The prenatal hormonal environment as well as the social experience of the rearing have thus demonstrated a formula for creating the perfect female homosexual.
DIFFERENCES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SEX, ADJUSTMENT, AND FAMILIAL INFLUENCES AMONG HOMOSEXUAL AND NONHOMOSEXUAL POPULATION, BRENDA D. TOWNES, WILLIAM D. FERGUSON, SANDRA GILLAM, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1976, VOL 1(3), P261-272.
The present study investigated differences in psychological sex, present and past adjustment, and parental influences among homosexual cross-dressers, homosexual no-ncross-dressers, applicants for sex change surgery, and heterosexuals. The homosexual non-cross-dresser and heterosexual groups were found to have the most masculine gender role, with the sex change group having the most feminine gender identity. The two homosexual groups were most accepting of homosexuality, with the sex change group having the least acceptance of homosexuality. Support was not found for the prediction that the sex change group would have the worst present and past adjustment followed by the homosexual cross-dressers with the poorest past adjustment. As predicted, however, fathers were perceived as more nurturant in the heterosexual group than among the remaining three groups. These findings suggest that variations in sexual life-style can be understood as manifiestations of different combinations of the components of psychological sex and that a nurturant father is important in the development of a heterosexual life-style.
CASE MANAGEMENT OF THE GENDER INCONGRUITY SYNDROME IN CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE, EILEEN HIGHAM, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1976, VOL 2(1), P49-57.
SEXUAL IDENTITY AND SELF-CONCEPT, PAUL C. LARSON, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1977, VOL 7(1), P15-32,
This study investigated the relationship among gender, social sex roles, and sexual orientation as components of sexual identity, and the relationship of these components to the overall self-concept. It was found that each component was individually important in the relationship of sexual identity to self-concept. The interaction between sex and sexual orientation suggested that different combinations of the female, male, heterosexual, and homosexual components had different relationship to self-concept.
Women had higher scores than men on moral-ethical and family self-concepts. Homosexual persons as a group had self-concepts in the normal range, though they showed a greater number of minor deviations across several areas of self-concept than did their heterosexual counterparts.
The homosexual sample endorsed more sex roles typical of the opposite sex than did the heterosexual sample, but the two groups did not differ in frequency of same-sex roles. Sex roles were related to self-concept in men but not in women. Among men, masculine and androgynous sex roles were associated with positive self-concept while feminine and undifferentiated sex roles were associated with less positive self-concepts. This suppports the model of sex roles in which femininity and masculinity are conceived of and measured as separate dimensions.
SEX-ROLE IDENTITY AND MALE AND FEMALE HOMOSEXUALITY, ALFRED B. HEILBRUN, NORMAN L. THOMPSON, SEX ROLES, 1977, VOL 3(1), P65-79.
The incidences of sex-role outcome within homosexual and heterosexual male and female young adult samples were compared using a fourfold typology (both masculine and feminine, masculine, feminine, neither masculine nor feminine). Sex-role identity disparities between the female groups were more clear-cut; the most striking difference was the high incidence of masculinity (60%) within the homosexual female group. No significant differences for males were found, although a trend was noted toward higher incidence of femininity and lower incidence of masculinity in homosexuals. The second purpose of the study was to search for possible developmental antecedents to heterosexual deficit in unselected college samples. The same key pattern of psychometric indices was identified for males and females. Low heterosexuality and the closest approximation to the modal sex-role identity among homosexuals of their sex were found in females primarily identified with masculine fathers and low in role consistency and in males primarily identified with feminine mothers and low in role consistency.
DEPARTURES FROM SEX ROLE STEREOTYPES OF APPEARANCE AND BEHAVIOR AND VIOLATIONS OF CIVIL LIBERTIES, MICHAEL G. SHIVELY, MARNY A. HALL, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1977, VOL2(4), P331-335.
SEXUAL PREFERNCE, SEX ROLE APPROPRIATENESS, AND RESTRICTION OF SOCIAL ACCESS, JIM MILLHAM, LINDA E. WEINBERBGER, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1977, VOL 2(4), P343-357.
ROLE EXPECTATIONS AND DEFINITIONS: A COMPARISON OF FEMALE TRANSSEXUALS AND LESBIANS, ELIZABETH A. MCCAULEY, ANKE A. EHRHARDT, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1977, VOL 3(2), P137-145.
A new study on female transsexuals and lesbians is reported. A matched-group comparison of 15 women in each sample suggests that the two groups do not differ in overall intelligence, although lesbians, unlike female transsexuals, tended to have a significantly higher verbal IQ than perforance IQ. Both groups showed a similar reponse pattern on the Embedded Figures Test but differed on the Draw-A Person Test, The Guilddord-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, and the Bem Androgny Scale. Whereas the female transsexual group reflected a more rigid gender role stereotype, the lesbians saw their options as more androgynous.
PSYCHOTHERAPY WITH LESBIANS, DOROTHY I. RIDDLE, JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, 1978, VOL 34(3), P384-100.
Psychotherapeutic work with lesbians is confounded by both sexist and heterosexist factors. This paper traces three aspects of women's socialization - self-concept, feminine sex-role behavior, and sexuality - which have particular implications for lesbians and discusses the implications of these three in therapy. The impact of women's conditioning to base self-esteem on acceptance by others is noted, particularly as such conditioning combines with the cumulative stresses of lesbian life. Finally, examples of ways in which heterosexual bias may become apparent in therapy are given, and alternative therapeutic approaches are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION ON PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC OUTCOMES, PETRA LIJESTRAND, ERNEST GERLING, PATRICIA A. SALIBA, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 3(4), P361-372.
This paper examines the relationship of biological sex, social sex-role stereotypes, and sexual orientation of client and therapist to psychotherapeutic outcomes. It was hypothesized that analogous biological sex, departures in social sex-role, and sexual orientation of client and therapist would have positive effects on psychotherapeutic outcomes. Twenty-four clients and 16 therapists, including five client-therapist pairs, were interviewed on how issues of social sex-role stereotyping and sexual orientation arose and were dealt with in therapy. The results indicated (a) a trend toward more positive outcomes when client and therapist were of the same sex, and (b) that similarity of sexual orientation of client and therapist is related to positive psychotherapeutic outcomes. The results for departure from social sex-role stereotypes were inconclusive.
SELECTED CLINICAL STUDIES OF THE TREATMENT EFFECTS OF THE SEXUAL IDENTITY OF CLIENTS AND THERAPISTS, PATRICIA A. SALIBA, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 4(1), P113-120.
This bibliography contains annoted references for clinical research on the variables of biological sex, social sex-role, and sexual orientation. Biological sex refers to individuals being female or male. Social sex-role refers to psychological characteristics of individuals that are culturally associated with females or males. These characteristics are perceived by individuals as feminine or masculine. Sexual orientation refers to individuals' physical sexual activity and close relationships with and erotic fantasies about members of the same or opposite biological sex.
PSYCHOLOGISTS' ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUAL PSYCHOTHERAPY CLIENTS, ELLEN M. GARFINKLE, STEPHEN F. MORIN, JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, 1978, VOL 34(3), P101-112.
Forty male and forty female psychotherapists were asked to rate both a hypothetical client, based on an intake case history, and their concept of the "psychologically healthy person" on a semantic differential scale. Participants were assigned case histories where the hypothetical client was a heterosexual male, heterosexual female, homosexual male, or homosexual female. Attributions of psychological health were found to differ as a function of sexual orientation of client and sex of therapist. No significant difference was found between evaluation of male homosexual and female homosexual clients. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of perceived violations of sex-role stereotypes in the evaluation of psychological health.
THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE SOCIAL SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES, MICHAEL G. SHIVELY, JAMES R. RUDOLPH, JOHN P. DE CECCO, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 3(3), P225-234.
The purpose of this study was to identify the social sex-role stereotypes that exist in the nation. The hypothesis for this study was that the stereotypes for femininity and masculinity are dimorphous. To determine the extent of dimorphism, four social sex-role stereotypes were examined: masculine men, feminine women, feminine men, and masculine women. Three hundred female and male respondents from all regions of the nation, who varied in age, ethnicity, education, sexual orientation, and social sex-role, completed a questionnaire by listing the characteristics people expected a masculine man, a feminine woman, a feminine man, and a masculine woman to have. The results supported the hypothesis that the stereotypes for femininty and masculinity are dimorphous.
METHODOLOGY FOR STUDYING DISCRIMINATION BASED ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND SOCIAL SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES, JOHN P. DE CECCO, MARY C. FIGLIULO, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 3(3), P235-241.
This article presents the methodology used in collecting data for the study of the relationship of sexual orientation and social sex-role to the protection of civil liberties. The methodology is designed to determine how departures in sexual orientation and social sex-role are the basis for the abridgment of civil liberties. Departure in sexual orientation is defined as physical sexual activity involving individuals of the same sex. Departure in stereotype for men, the feminine stereotype for women, the masculine stereotype for men, and the masculine stereotype for women.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF DEPARTURES IN SOCIAL SEX-ROLE TO THE ABRIDMENT OF CIVIL LIBERTIES, MARY C. FIGLIULO, MICHAEL G. SHIVELY, FREDERICK MCENROE, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 3(3), P249-255.
This article examines the relationship of departures from the feminine stereotype for women and the masculine stereotype for men to the abridment of civil liberties. The methodology is described for determining conformity to and departures from social sex-role stereotypes. Results show that: (a) there was more conformity than departure from social sex-role stereotypes; (b) there were proportionately more violations of the right of equality for those who departed: (c) sexual orientation was more often known for those who departed; (d) biologial sex was not related to the violations of particular civil liberties for those who departed; and (e) for modes of conflict resolution, there was proportionately more use of avoidance by those who departed.
SELECTED CLINICAL STUDIES OF THE TREATMENT EFFECTS OF THE SEXUAL IDENTITY OF CLIENTS AND THERAPISTS, PATRICIA A. SALIBA, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 4(1), P113-120.
This bibliography contains annoted references for clinical research on the variables of biological sex, social sex-role, and sexual orientation. Biological sex refers to individuals being female or male. Social sex-role refers to psychological characteristics of individuals that are culturally associated with females or males. These characteristics are perceived by individuals as feminine or masculine. Sexual orientation refers to individuals' physical sexual activity and close relationships with and erotic fantasies about members of the same or opposite biological sex.
COMING OUT: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES FOR LESBIANS AND GAY MEN, CARMEN DE MONTEFLORES, STEPHEN J. SCHULTZ, JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, 1978, VOL 34(3), P59-72.
"Coming out" is the developmental process through which gay people recognize their sexual preferences and choose to integrate this knowledge into their personal and social lives. A number of experiences are critical in this process: the awareness of same-sex attractions, first homosexual experience, coming out in the gay world, labelling oneself as gay or homosexual, coming out to friends, family, and co-workers, and coming out publicily. Several areas of psychological theory relevant to the coming out process are discussed, including identity formation, self-disclosure and self-validation, and sex-role socialization. In addition, differences are noted in the coming out experiences of men and women related to conformity to and violation of sex-role expectations, as well as to political and legal issues.
COUPLES: THE HIDDEN SEGMENT OF THE GAY WORLD, NEIL R. TULLER, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1978, VOL 5(4), P331-343.
This study explores the relationships of 15 homosexual couples - 5 female and 10 male couples. In duration the relationships ranged from 7 months to 13 years. In age the partners ranged from 19 to 50. Findings indicate that the partners met in social as compared with sexual settings, that relationships are more common for females than for males, that female more than male couples require sexual fidelity between partners, that male more than female couples desire children, and that there was no "butch-femme" role playing in the relationships. Social incompatibility of partners and social pressure are seen as causes for the breakup of relationships.
RELATING TO CHILDREN: GAYS AS ROLE MODELS, DOROTHY I. RIDDLE, JOURNAL OF SOCIAL ISSUES, 1978, VOL 34(3), P38-58.
Within the framework that same-sex sexual preference can be a positive outcome, the developmental aspects of sexual identity are traced. It seems that gender identity is fixed in early childhood, rigid sex-role identity has questionable effects while more flexibility in sex-role behaviors has definite advantages, and sexual preference choices continue to evolve throughout one's lifetime. A review of the literature on role modeling leads to the conclusions that children internalize particular traits from a variety of models, and that gays are more likely to serve as non-traditional sex-role models than as determiners of same-sex sexual preference.
FEMALE TO MALE TRANSSEXUALS COMPARED TO LESBIANS: BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS OF CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT, A.A. EHRHARDT, G. GRISANTI, E.A. MCCAULEY, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1979, VOL 8(6), p481-490.
We report detailed interview data on a clinical sample (N = 15) of female-to-male transsexuals (FTs) compared to a matched research sample (N = 15) of lesbians (Ls). Both groups were relatively young, with a mean age of 21 years 10 months (FTs) and 23 years 8 months (Ls), respectively, and were of middle or lower SES. Both groups did not differ from each other in respect to frequency of tomboyish behavior or interest in doll play and other aspects of maternal rehearsal. Male peer preference was more often remembered among the FTs, but the difference between the groups was only of borderline significance. The groups differed significantly regarding childhood cross-dressing (80% FTs, 0% for Ls), gender identity confusion in adolescence (absent among Ls), and negative reaction to breast development and menarche (approxiamte 70% for FTs, 10% for Ls). The similarities and differences between the two groups in childhood and adolescent development are relevant for clinical management and the differential diagnosis of transsexualism vs lesbianism.
SEX ROLES: A JOURNAL OF RESEARCH, ED PHYLLIS A. KATZ, REVIEW BY DOUGLAS WALLACE, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1979, VOL 4(3), P287-290.
ATTITUDINAL HOMOPHOBIA AND SUPPORT OF TRADITIONAL SEX ROLES, LINDA E. WEINBERGER, JIM MILLHAM, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1979, VOL 4(3), P237-246.
The present study investigated the relationships among various attitudes toward homosexuality and the maintenance of traditional male/female gender distinctions. The results supported both the importance of separate attitude dimensions describing reactions to homosexuality and the meaningfulness of an overall pattern of homophobia. Components of homophobic style were evaluated and related to components of support for traditional male/female roles. An individual's own congruence with traditional gender expectations and his/her attitudes toward sex-role incongruence were evaluated within the context of social psychological research on deviance.
SEXUAL PREFERENCE OR PERSONAL STYLE? WHY LESBIANS ARE DISLIKED, MARY RIEGE LANER, ROY H. LANER, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1979/80, VOL 5(1/4) P339-356.
MacDonald and Games (1974) have argued that homosexual men and women are disliked because they are thought to display inappropriate gender-related mannerisms (either "butch" or "femme"). Storms (1978) argued that sex-object choice, nor personal style, is the basis for dislike. Laner and Laner (1979) have presented evidence that both dimensions - sexual preference and personal style - are implicated in dislike of homosexual men. The present study replicates the design of Laner and Laner's (1979) study but compares likeableness ratings and quality attributes of lesbian and nonlesbian women, divided into three subtypes: hypofeminine (masculine), feminine (average), and hyperfeminine (effeminate). Findings parallel those of Laner and Laner's earlier work and lend partial support both to MacDonald and Games's and to Storms's propositions. Conventionality of style, as heterosexually defined (in this case, average feminine), appears most likely to reduce dislike of lesbians. A publicly conventional presentation of self is not incompatible with private individualism, however.
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX DIFFERENCES BY HILARY M. LIPS AND NINA L. COLWILL, REVIEW BY MISCHA B. ADAMS, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1980, VOL 5(4), P405-412.
LESBIAN WOMEN'S PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS, EILEEN SHAVELSON, MARY K. BIAGGIO, HERB H. CROSS, ROBERT E. LEHMAN, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1980, VOL 5(3), P205-215.
Twenty-six self-identified lesbian women and a comparison group of twenty-six heterosexual women, who were either students in a human sexuality course, members of the National Organization for Women, or volunteers from a women's center, were administered the short form of Shaefer's Child Report of Parental Behavior Inventory, the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and an interview concerning family background relationships and sexual experiences and attitudes. Regression analysis revealed no significant family background variable or parental sex-role adherence variable that correlated with sexual orientation. Significant differences were found concerning sex-role adherence, with lesbian women being more masculinely sex-role typed than heterosexual women. Lesbian women were also found to be significantly more satisfied with their sex lives. It was concluded that there are no apparent family background variables that predict the development of a lesbian orientation.
SEX-ROLE PSYCHOLOGY, FRANK WESLEY AND CLAIRE WESLEY, HUMAN SCIENCES PRESS, 1977; THE LONGEST WAR: SEX DIFFERENCES IN PERSPECTIVE, CAROL TAVRIS AND CAROLE OFFIR, HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH, 1977; THE SEX ROLE SYSTEM: PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES, EDITED BY JANE CHETWYND AND OONAGH HARTNETT, ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL, 1978; UNDOING SEX STEREOTYPES, MARCIA GUTTENTAG, HELEN BRAY, MCGRAW-HILL, 1976, REVIEW BY RICHARD W. SMITH, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1981, VOL 7(1), P81-86.
ASCRIPTION OF NEGATIVE TRAITS BASED ON SEX ROLE AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION, RODNEY K. GOODYEAR, PHILIP D. ABADIE, KAREN A. BARQUEST, PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORTS, 1981, VOL 49(1), P194.
A brief desription of the results of a survey of 142 undergraduates in educational psychology. A 'typical female' was evaluated most positively and a 'typical female homosexual' most negatively. The authors suggest that one explanation for the findings is that the participants were mainly female (78%); previous research has shown that women most positively evaluate their own sex role and people are most negative towards homosexuals of their own sex.
CHILDHOOD PLAY ACTIVITIES OF MALE AND FEMALE HOMOSEXUALS AND HETEROSEXUALS, EDWARD A. GRELLERT, MICHAEL D. NEWCOMB, P.M. BENTLER, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1982, VOL 11(6) P451-478.
This study examined the differences in childhood play behavior reported by adult male homosexuals (N = 198) and heterosexuals (N = 198) and those reported by female homosexuals (N = 198) and heterosexuals (N = 198). Two checklists with a total of 58 sports, games, and play activities were assembled: one for ages 5-8 and the other for ages 9-13. These were administered to the four samples. Monotonicity analysis (a type of factor analysis) revealed four scales within each checklist that were statistically reliable in each of the four samples. Scale and item mean comparisons revealed large significant differences between heterosexual males and females, male homosexuals and heterosexuals, and female homosexuals and heterosexuals. A majority of homosexuals reported significant degrees of cross-sex behavior in childhood play. Favorite play activies, age trends, play-related attitudes, and parent-child interactions were also examined.
NINETY-NINE "TOMBOYS" AND "NON-TOMBOYS": BEHAVIORAL CONTRASTS AND DEMOGRAPHIC SIMILARITIES, RICHARD GREEN, KATHERINE WILLIAMS, MARILYN GOODMAN, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1982, VOL 11(3), P247-266.
Two samples of female children with diverse patterns of sex-typed behaviors are described. Fifty traditionally sex-typed and 49 nontraditionally sex-typed girls are contrasted. Their age range is 4-12 years. They are widely divergent on sex-typed preferred toys, gender of peer group, partiicpation in sports, roles taken in playing house, and stated wish to be a boy. Their parents do not differ on age, marital status, religion, or number of children. These descriptions provide the baseline for a forth-coming series of papers describing the development of these divergent patterns of sex-typed behaviors and the association of these early patterns with later psychosexual and psychosocial attributes.
THE FEMININITY AND MASCULINITY OF PARTNERS IN HETEROSEXUAL AND HOMOSEXUAL RELATIONSHIPS, RANDALL W. JONES, JOHN P. DE CECCO, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1982, VOL 8(2), P37-49.
This research addressed three questions: (1) Did partners in homosexual relationships perceive themselves as less stereotypically feminine or masculine than partners in heterosexual relationshps? (2) Did partners complement or match each other in their self-perceived femininity and masculinity? (3) What was the correlation of partners; femininity and masculinity to their views on attachment and autonomy in their relationships? The high level of androgyny (87%) in the sample precluded making the intended comparisons. There was, however, some evidence in the heterosexual partners to support the assumption of feminine-masculine complementarity and some to support the link between masculinity and devaluation of attachment. In the discussion, questions were raised about the atypicality of the San Francisco Bay Area sample, about the validity and reliability of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire as a measure of social sex-role, and the basic adequacy of questionnaires that assume that self-knowledge is easily elicited from respondents.
GENDER ROLES IN THE RELATIONSHIPS OF LESBIANS AND GAY MEN, JEANNE MARECEK, STEPHEN E. FINN, MONA CARDELL, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1982, VOL 8(2), P45-49.
Recent research on gay male and lesbian couples suggests that traditional gender-role-playing sometimes occurs in their relationships, though it is less common than in the relationships of heterosexuals. This paper briefly explores three issues raised by these findings. First, we consider reasons why partners of the same gender might engage in gender-role-playing. Second we discuss the processes that might be involved in allocating masculine and feminine roles to partners in a couple. Finally, we consider the finding that traditional gender roles are associated with diminished satsifaction and suggest possible reasons why this might be so.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF SELF-REPORTED SEX-ROLE CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY, KATHRYN N. BLACK, MICHAEL R. STEVENSON, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1984, VOL 10(1/2), P83-93.
The present study investigated the relationship between self-reported sex-role characteristics and attitudes toward homosexuality using the Bem Sex Inventory, the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and the Attitudes toward Homosexuality Scale. Relationships occur for both males and females who are exhibiting greater amounts of cross-sex traits. Females with more instrumental characteristics were more accepting while males with more expressive characteristics were more rejecting. These findings are discussed in relation to those of Weinberger and Millham (1979) who also investigated this relationship, as well as to research investigating the relationship between attitudes toward homosexuality and attitudes toward sex roles and feminism.
FOLLOW-UP OF FEMALES WITH GENDER IDENTITY DISORDERS, E. MCCAULEY, A.A. EHRHARDT, J-NERV-MENT-DIS 1984, VOL 172(6), P353-8.
The present paper reports on the course of 15 young female to male transsexual applicants followed for 1 to 9 years after initial evaluation. Each patient completed a lengthy evaluation process including
detailed semistructured interviews and a battery of psychological tests. Of the 15 applicants, 10 went on to live full time in the male role; however, one of these later returned to living as a female. This woman and three others were living as lesbians at last follow-up, while the two other patients continued to live in a more ambiguously male-female role. Psychosocial functioning at the time of follow-up in terms of employment, partners, and psychiatric status is reviewed. A supportive problem-solving psychotherapy program was offered to all of these patients and seven became actively involved in therapy. The potential benefits and limitations of psychotherapy with female gender dysphoric patients are discussed.
THE MYTHIC MANNISH LESBIAN: RADCLYFFE HALL AND THE NEW WOMAN, ESTHER NEWTON, SIGNS: JOURNAL OF WOMEN IN CULTURE AND SOCIETY, 1984, VOL 9(4), P557-575.
BREAKING THE MIRROR: THE CONSTRUCTION OF LESBIANISM AND THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DISCOURSE ON HOMOSEXUALITY, E. BLACKWOOD, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1985, VOL 11(3-4), P1-17.
This essay reviews the anthropological discourse on homosexuality by examining the assumptions that have been used by anthropologists to explain homosexual behavior, and by identifying current theoretical
approaches. The essay questions the emphasis on male homosexual behavior as the basis for theoretical analysis, and points to the importance of including female homosexual behavior in the study of
homosexuality. Cross-cultural data on lesbian behavior are represented and the influence of gender divisions and social stratification on the development of patterns of lesbian behavior are broadly explored. The article outlines suggestions for examining the cultural context of lesbian behavior as well as the constraints exerted on women's sexual behavior in various cultures.
ROLE RELATIONSHIPS: LESBIAN PERSPECTIVES, JEAN M. LYNCH, MARY ELLEN REILLY, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1985/86, VOL 12(2), P53-69.
This questionnaire study of 140 lesbians, 70 couples who have lived together for one or more years, explores equality and role relationships. We predicted that lesbians would achieve partnerships charaterized by equality and freedom from traditional butch-femme role playing. Financial sharing and decision-making were found to be characterized by high degrees of equality. Household responsibilities tended to be performed individually, but no role-playing was evident. Sexual intimacy items indicated less perceived equality than other areas. And overall, some partners were viewed as unequal. The variables of age, income, education, occupation, assets, and years living together did not explain the inequality observed.
CHILDHOOD CROSS-GENDER BEHAVIOR AND ADULT HOMOSEXUALITY, J.M. CARRIER, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1986, VOL 15(1), P89-93.
LESBIAN HISTORY: A HISTORY OF CHANGE AND DISPARITY, MYRIAM EVERARD, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1986, VOL 12(3/4), P123-138.
FEMININITY IN MEN AND MASCULINITY IN WOMEN: AMERICAN PSYCHIATRY AND PSYCHOLOGY PORTRAY HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE 1930'S, HENRY L. MINTON, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1986, VOL 13(1), P1-21.
Two influential studies of homosexuality are reviewed. Both were conducted in the United States in the 1930s and involved rather large samples of homosexual men and women. Each investigation concluded that homosexuality was linked to cross-gender identification. Consequently, these studies served as justification for perpetuating a clear distinction between masculine and feminine roles. Consideration is given to the intellectual and social context within which the association of gender deviation and homosexuality was promulgated.
*"I WANT TO PLAY WITH THE GIRLS..." CREATING LESBIAN IDENTITIES, DIANA HAMER, PAPER PRESENTED TO THE CONFERENCE "HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY," AMSTERDAM, 1987.
*THE REPRODUCTION OF BUTCH-FEM ROLES: A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST APPROACH, E. KENNEDY AND M. DAVIS, PAPER PRESENTED TO THE CONFERENCE "HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY," AMSTERDAM, 1987.
*BEYOND FEMINISM: THE BUTCH-FEMME DEBATE, SASKIA WIERINGA AND NOOR VAN CREVEL, PAPER PRESENTED AT THE CONFERENCE "HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY," AMSTERDAM, 1987.
*GUYS AND DOLLS, THE COME-BACK OF THE BUTCH-FEMME, ANJA VAN KOOTEN NIEKERK AND SACHA WIJMER, PAPER PRESENTED AT THE CONFERENCE "HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY," AMSTERDAM, 1987.
*GENDER STEREOTYPES AND LESBIAN LIFESTYLES, NORETTA KOERTGE, PAPER PRESENTED TO THE CONFERENCE "HOMOSEXUALITY, WHICH HOMOSEXUALITY," AMSTERDAM, 1987.
DETECTION OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION BY HETEROSEXUALS AND HOMOSEXUALS, GREGORY BERGER, LORI HANK, TOM RAUZI, LAWRENCE SIMKINS, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALTY, 1987, VOL 13(4), P83-100.
The purpose of this study was to determine if sexual orientation can be correctly identified under controlled conditions. A series of 24 brief videotaped interviews with homosexual and heterosexual men and women were presented to a sample of 143 subject raters divided into four sexual preference and gender groups. None of the groups were able to exceed levels of correct detection. Approximately 20% of the total subject pool did exceed change levels. There were significantly more women than men in this sub-sample and homosexual women were represented disproportionately. Although there were some differences in the types of behavioral cues used by the different sexual preference groups to make their judgments, with the possible exception of homosexual women, these cues were unrelated to accurate identification of sexual orientation. The relatively better performance of female raters is discussed in terms of differences in the socialization process of men and women.
BUTCHES, FEMMES, AND FEMINISTS: THE POLITICS OF LESBIAN SEXUALITY, ELIZABETH A. SMITH, NWSA JOURNAL, 1989, VOL 1(3), P398-421.
THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF GENDER ROLE ATTITUDES TO MALE AND FEMALE ATTITUDES TOWARD LESBIANS, BERNIE S. NEWMAN, SEX ROLES, 1989, VOL 21 (7/8), P451-465.
Previous studies suggest that gender role attitudes, parental attitudes, authoritarianism, religiosity, contact with homosexuals, and exposure to educational influences are associated with attitudes toward homosexuals. Few studies have been conducted on attitudes toward lesbians specifically. This study investigated the pattern of predictors for male and female attitudes toward lesbians. The regression analysis on males revealed that gender role attitudes were the only significant predictor, while gender role attitudes, parental attitudes, authoritarianism, and educational and media influences made a contribution to female attitudes toward lesbians. Despite more liberal gender role attitudes expressed by female respondents, there was no differences between male and female attitudes toward lesbians. This finding and the additional contribution to female attitudes toward lesbians made by the other predictors beside gender role attitudes suggests that the female respondents' development of attitudes toward lesbians is a product of a wider array of variables, with gender role attitudes playing a more central role in the development of male attitudes toward lesbians. Nevertheless, the importance of gender role attitudes to both male and female attitudes toward lesbians suggests that stratification by sex might be an underlying variable for both gender role attitudes and attitudes toward lesbians.
ATTITUDES AND EXPECTATIONS ABOUT CHILDREN WITH NONTRADITIONAL AND TRADITIONAL GENDER ROLES, CAROL LYNN MARTIN, SEX ROLES, 1990, VOL 22(3/4), P151-165.
Cross-sex behavior in boys generally is viewed more negatively than cross-sex behavior in girls. The two goals of this study were to assess attitudes toward tomboys and sissies, and to explore possible causes for differential evaluations of tomboys and sissies. Eighty undergraduates completed questionnaires assessing their attitudes toward tomboys and sissies, and their expectations for the future adult behavior of typical boys, typical girls, tomboys, and sissies. Results revealed that sissies were more negatively evaluated than tomboys. Women were more accepting of, and perceived more societal acceptance from cross-sex children, than were men. One reason for the negative evaluation of sissies may be that there is more concern for their future outcomes than for tomboys. Analyses of predictions concerning future behavior showed that sissies, more so than tomboys, were expected to continue to show cross-gender behavior into adulthood. Also, sissies were rated as likely to be less well adjusted and more likely to be homosexual when they grow up than other children. The accuracy of these beliefs and their implications for child-rearing practices are discussed.
REJECTING "FEMININITY": SOME RESEARCH NOTES ON GENDER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT IN LESBIANS, MARGARET COOPER, DEVIANT BEHAVIOR, 1990, VOL 11, P371-380.
Fifteen women who identify themselves as lesbians were interviewed about their own development of gender identity. All the women involved in the study indicated a rejection of the traditional feminine role. This was often manifested before they were even aware of same-sex attractions. However, they saw the traditional role for women as representing heterosexuality. To gain access to women, many even saw a need to achieve masculinity. Due to few or no visible lesbian role models and the rejection of the traditional female role, many, as children, chose the male role. This was reflected in 1) taking the male role in play or fantasy, 2) being a "tomboy", and 3) rejecting items of dress and play associated with female children. While none, as adults, still wanted to portray a male role, each still rejected traditional femininity. Thus these lesbians had to come to their own conclusions about what it meant not only to be women, but lesbians as well.
BUTCH/FEMME OBSESSIONS, SUSAN ARDILL AND SUE O'SULLIVAN, FEMINIST REVIEW, 1990, VOL 34, SPRING, P79-85.
CONCEPTUALIZING ANTI-GAY VIOLENCE, JOSEPH HARRY, JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, 1990, VOL 5(3), P350-358.
Anti-gay violence is here viewed as being the result of immature males fulfilling sexual status needs. Through such violence they reaffirm their commitment to heterosexuality in a visible way to their peers. Anti-gay offenders are divided into activists, who seek out homosexual victims; opportunists, who victimize gays and lesbians as occasions arise; and a much larger number who abandon any helping-citizen role when faced with such violence by others. Activists resort to gay-defined places to find victims; opportunists use other cues to identify victims. Chief among the cues used by offenders are behaviors and deportments that depart from traditional gender roles. Visibility of the victim as homosexual plays a dominant role in distinguishing gays or lesbians who have been assaulted from those who have not.
THE CONTEXT OF ANTI-GAY VIOLENCE, NOTES ON CULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HETEROSEXISM, GREGORY M. HEREK, JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, 1990, VOL 5(3), P316-333.
Hate crimes against lesbians and gay men occur within a broader cultural context that is permeated by heterosexism. Heterosexism is defined here as an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes any nonheterosexual form of behavior, identity, relationship, or community. It operates principally by rendering homosexuality invisible and, when this fails, by trivializing, repressing, or stigmatizing it. This article focuses upon the nexus between cultural heterosexism and individual prejudice against lesbians and gay men. Key components of the ideologies of sex and gender from which heterosexism derives are identified: (a) the personal-public dichotomy, (b) the stigmatization of particular forms of sexuality, and (c) the linkage of heterosexuality to gender-role conformity. Supported by these ideological underpinnings, cultural heterosexism fosters individual anti-gay attitudes by providing a ready-made system of values and stereotypical beliefs that justify such prejudice as "natural." By imbuing homosexuality with a variety of symbolic meanings, cultural heterosexism enables expressions of individual prejudice to serve various psychological functions. Further, by discouraging lesbians and gay men from coming out to others, heterosexism perpetuates itself. Recent social trends that may affect the ideology of heterosexism are identified, and their potential for reducing anti-gay prejudice is discussed.
SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND COGNITIVE ABILITIES, GORDON E. TUTTLE, RICHARD C. PILLARD, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1991, VOL 20(3), P307-318.
We asked whether homosexual and heterosexual men and women differ on standard measures of cognitive ability. Subjects were adults recruited for a family study of sexual orientation. They completed the Fy Scale of the California Psychological Inventory, a self-administered measure of psychological "femininity," and were given subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Primary Mental Abilities test which had been previously shown to discriminate between the sexes. We predicted that homosexual subjects would score significantly in the gender-atypical direction on the Fy scale. We also predicted that they would achieve scores on the tests of cognitive abilities significantly in the direction of the other gender. Comparisons were made between homosexual and heterosexual individuals within gender. Also, comparisons were made between heterosexual men and women to see if our results replicate differences typically found between the genders. As predicted, both homosexual men and women were strongly gender-atypical on the Fy scale relative to their heterosexual counterparts. However, neither differed from heterosexuals on any of the measures of cognitive abilities. Heterosexual men did better than women on the Primary Mental Abilities spatial relations test. We conclude that sexual orientation is not related to specific cognitive abilities.
THE RELATION OF GENDER AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION TO MEASURES OF MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, AND ANDROGYNY: A FURTHER ANALYSIS, BARBARA FINLAY, KAREN E. SCELTEMA, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1991, VOL 21(3), P71-85.
Data from a survey of 58 gay men and 58 lesbians are compared to college men and women on Spence and Helmreich's (1978) Personality Attributes Questionnaire measures of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. Lesbians had higher M scores than college women, and gay men had lower M scores than college men, with F scores being similar across sexual orientation groups, within gender. Androgyny measures differed only by gender, not by sexual orientation. Further analysis shows that lesbians' high M scores come largely from their high self-ratings as independent, while college men's high M scores reflect strong competitiveness. Questions are raised about the validity of these measures for comparing these groups.
AN EXCHANGE OF LETTERS, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1991, VOL 21(3), P141-143.
CHILDHOOD CROSS-GENDER BEHAVIOR OF HOMOSEXUAL FEMALES IN BRAZIL, PERU, THE PHILIPPINES, AND THE UNITED STATES, FREDERICK L. WHITAM, ROBIN M MATHY, ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, 1991, VOL 20(2), P151-170.
Heterosexual and homosexual females were interviewed with regard to childhood cross-gender behavior in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Nine items were used to examine childhood behavior differences between heterosexual and homosexual females. Six of these items (playing with boys' toys, playing with girls' toys, dressing up in men's clothes, dressing up in women's clothes, paying attention to women's fashions, and being considered a tomboy) revealed statistically significant differences between the heterosexual and homosexual females. These differences demonstrated significant cross-cultural consistency, despite cultural variations among the societies examined. Rejection of certain gender-typical activities and interests, as well as involvement in cross-gendered activities and interests, seem to be consistent precursors of adult sexual orientation regardless of the cultural context in which these behaviors emerge.
THE RETURN OF BUTCH AND FEMME: A PHENOMENON IN LESBIAN SEXUALITY OF THE 1980S AND 1990S, LILLIAN FADERMAN, JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF SEXUALITY, 1992, VOL 2(4), P578-596.
LESBIAN STEREOTYPES, MICHELE ELIASON, CAROL DONELAN, CARLA RANDALL, HEALTH CARE FOR WOMEN INTERNATIONAL, 1992, VOL 13(2), P131-144.
The American Psychological Association's Committee on Gay and Lesbian Concerns (Herek, 1987) expressed a need for research that focuses specifically on the concerns of lesbians. To this end, we attempted to identify stereotypes about lesbians, as noted in 278 female nursing students' responses to open-ended questions. Content analysis of the responses revealed a number of consistent themes or stereotypes. The most prevalent stereotypes included lesbians' seduction of heterosexual women, lesbian "boasting," and the "masculine aura" of lesbians. None of the participant variables (age, educational level, social class, and type of nursing education) were significantly related to particular stereotypes. The impact of stereotypes on the acceptance of lesbians within society is discussed.
DIVERGENT PERCEPTIONS OF LESBIANS: A COMPARISON OF LESBIAN SELF-PERCEPTIONS AND HETEROSEXUAL PERCEPTIONS, DENISE C. VISS, SHAWN M. BURN, THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, 1992, VOL 132(2), P169-177.
Social-psychological research on stereotyping was applied to lesbianism among American college students. The hypothesis that stereotypes of lesbians are often inaccurate predictors of individual lesbians was supported. Using stereotypes of lesbians identified by previous research, lesbians rated themselves on a series of bipolar stereotypical adjectives, and a comparison group of nonlesbians rated lesbians as a group on these same adjectives. Significant differences were found on 16 of the 21 adjectives. Knowing a lesbian personally did not influence heterosexuals' ratings, suggesting the resistance of stereotypes to change.
HOW TO RECOGNIZE A LESBIAN: THE CULTURAL POLIICS OF LOOKING LIKE WHAT YOU ARE, LISA M. WALKER, SIGNS, 1993, VOL 18(4), P866-890.
GENDER ROLES AND ROLE CONFLICT IN FEMINIST LESBIAN AND HETEROSEXUAL WOMEN, DEBRA K. PETERS, PEGGY J. CANTRELL, SEX ROLES, 1993, VOL 28 (7/8), P379-392.
Thirty-nine lesbian and 39 heterosexual feminist women were compared on (1) gender role orientation; (2) intra- and interrole conflict in daughter, intimate partner, and work roles; and (3) satisfaction with interpersonal relationships with parents, intimate partners, and co-workers/employers. The majority were Caucasian and either graduate students or professionals. Contrary to theoretical assumptions, lesbians and heterosexual women did not differ in gender role orientation. Heterosexual women reported more interrole conflict between daughter and work roles; whereas lesbians reported more interrole conflict between daughter and intimate partner roles, primarily as a result of perceived disapproval of their intimate relationships by others. Lesbians additionally reported less satisfaction with their relationship with co-workers and employers. Role conflict/satisfaction was not a function of disclosure vs. nondisclosure of sexual orientation for the lesbian women.
CHILDHOOD CROSS-GENDER BEHAVIOR AND ADULT HOMOSEXUALITY: THE RESURGENCE OF BIOLOGICAL MODELS OF SEXUALITY, JAY P. PAUL, JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY, 1993, VOL 24(3/4), P41-54.
Research on the causes of homosexuality frequently treat it as a matter of disturbed gender identity and/or gender role. Recently, attempts have been made to link cross-gender behavior among boys with adult homosexuality. Often this research presumes a common biological determinant to both the childhood behavior patterns and homosexuality in adulthood. Authors have described such childhood cross-gender behavior in boys as part of a "prehomosexual" configuration. This paper argues that the research to date suffers from (1) a failure to differentiate such concepts as gender identity, gender role and sexual orientation, (2) a reliance upon potentially inappropriate dichotomies in describing such concepts, (3) problematic interpretations of research that makes few distinctions between human sexual behavior and sexual behavior among rodents, and (4) the contradictions implicit in seeking simple biological determinants of constructs (such as cross-gender behavior) that are culturally determined. The author argues that any potential biological factors contributing to sexual orientation must be medicated by a complex sequence of experiences and psychosocial factors. Therefore, the essentialists' search for a simple congruence between physiological or biological traits and homosexuality may be expected to fail.
EFFEMINACY, ALAN SINFIELD, CHANGES, AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOTHERAPY, 1994, VOL 12(4), P246-253.
AGE, SEX-ROLE CATEGORIZATION, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH IN AMERICAN HOMOSEXUAL AND HETEROSEXUAL MEN AND WOMEN, HELENA M. CARLSON, JOANNE STEUER, THE JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, 1985, VOL 125(2), P203-221.
An examination (N = 569) was made of the following hypotheses: (a) Homosexuals would be classified as androgynous more frequently than heterosexuals, and (b) age would have a more negative impact on self-concept, as measured by self-esteem and depression scores, in homosexual males than in heterosexual males. Results showed that homosexual men and women were more frequently androgynous than were heteosexual men and women. Age did not have a more negative impact on self-concept in homosexual men. The most potent predictor of psychological well-being was self-perceived masculinity scores. Self-esteem increased in all four groups as the masculinity scores increased.
CHAPTERS IN BOOKS
ALCOHOLISM PROBLEMS IN WOMEN AND CHILDREN, M. GREENBLATT & M. SCHUCKIT (EDS), GRUNE & STRATTON, 1976, INCLUDES:
THE IMPACT OF SEX ROLES ON WOMEN'S ALCOHOL USE AND ABUSE, SHARON C. WILSNACK, P37-63.
WOMEN TAKE ISSUE, WOMEN'S STUDIES GROUP CENTRE FOR CONTEMPORARY CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM, HUTCHINGSON OF LONDON, 1978, INCLUDES:
WORKING CLASS GIRLS AND THE CULTURE OF FEMININITY, ANGELA McROBBIE, P96-108.
FOR THOSE WHO WOULD BE SISTERS: UNCOVERING LESBIAN HISTORY, WORK IN PROGRESS NO 2, BY THE STUDENTS ON THE COURSE "UNCOVERING LESBIAN HISTORY 1800-1970" 1985-86, INCLUDES:
WOMEN CROSS-DRESSERS SINCE THE 18TH CENTURY, P14-19.
NOT A PASSING PHASE, RECLAIMING LESBIANS IN HISTORY, 1840-1985, LESBIAN HISTORY GROUP, THE WOMEN'S PRESS, 1989, INCLUDES:
BUTCH AND FEMME: NOW AND THEN, SHEILA JEFFREYS, P158-187.
DYKES-LOVING-DYKES: SEPARATIST POLITICS FOR LESBIANS ONLY, BEV JO, LINDA STREGA, RUSTON, 1990, INCLUDES:
CHAPTER 4: BUTCH HATRED IS LESBIAN HATRED.
ODD GIRLS AND TWILIGHT LOVERS, A HISTORY OF LESBIAN LIFE IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICA, LILLIAN FADERMAN, PENGUIN, 1992 - SEE INDEX.
BOOKS
THE TRADITION OF FEMALE TRANSVESTISM IN EARLY MODERN EURIPE, RUDOLF M. DEKKER AND LOTTE C. VAN D POL, MACMILLAN PRESS, 1989.
THE LESBIAN EROTIC DANCE: BUTCH, FEMME, ANDROGYNY AND OTHER RHYTHMS, JOANN LOULAN, SPINSTER BOOK CO., 1990.
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